The Second Vatican Council Essay Example for Free

The Second Vatican Council Essay The Second Vatican Council began in 1962 and ended in 1965. For the first year Pope John XXIII opened the council, he unfortunately died in 1963. Pope Paul VI then took over and closed the council in 1965. â€Å"A combined total of 2,865 bishops and prelates attended the council, which issued sixteen formal documents† (John and Hardon, 2000). The second Vatican promulgated some of the most important documents present in the Catholic religion. They also changed the way the Laity were involved in the church. A Lay apostle is someone who has committed to God (through baptism and confirmation) and strives to deliver the divine message of salvation to others throughout the world. â€Å"The need for the apostolate is shown by the manifest action of the Holy Spirit moving laymen today to a deeper and deeper awareness of their responsibility and urging them on everywhere to the service of Christ and the Church. † (Jackson, 2010). Therefore the statement suggests that the Holy Spirit is the one to give us a deeper understanding of what we as Catholics must do to become a good lay apostle, and that our responsibilities are within the church and our beliefs in Christ. Nazzaro (2010) states â€Å"A Lay apostle walks closely with Jesus throughout each day†¦ We serve Jesus through service to others. † In order to become a good lay apostle we must be close to the Lord daily whether saying prayers or attending church, and in order to serve him we must spread the word of God to everyone that would be interested in following Christ. The Second Vatican Council made the dogmatic constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium). This was a set of rules in which Catholic must abide by. The constitution of the church states that everyone is part of the church and therefore everyone has a responsibility for its growth and the spread of the kingdom of God throughout the world. Due to this responsibility the council recognised the need for the role of the laity to cease from being passive and instead become active. The role is stated by Paul VI (1964) â€Å"they may make Christ known to others† The Vatican II council was one of the most significant events to have happened in the Catholic Church. This was because the council made many changes, its purpose was to bring the church up to date by opening it to dialogue with the modern world in terms of other Christian traditions, other faiths, the cultural, the political and the technical milieu in which we all live. (Doyle, 2006. Bishop Butler, 1967). The church felt that they were ‘behind times’ therefore their goal was to modernise themselves so that they kept up with its people. This meant that the church allowed the freedom of speech to all catholic people. The council wanted a wider input from the community therefore they allowed the laity to have an active role in the church. Other changes included allowing women on the sanctuary, before the second Vatican only males could be alter servers. Churches were not encouraged to study the bible, but rather the catechism, however nowadays churches can study both. Catholics had little to do with Protestants and they weren’t allowed to enter protestant churches, this has also been changed. For most Catholics, the biggest changes the Council made was â€Å"the priest and altar turned toward the people and the Liturgy of the Word and the Canon of the Mass in the vernacular† (McInerny, 2001). This implies that the mass is now read in a language the people understood. Before the Vatican II, mass was read in Latin, which the Laity saw unsuitable as they did not follow or understand the ceremonies attended. The Laity played little part within the church before the second Vatican council was formed. The laity attended mass to listen to the word of God, which was delivered and preached by the clergy. However the insight of Vatican II now means that, â€Å"the laity have a full and active role to play both in the church and in the world. † (Kinast, 1979:384). This implies that the people of the church not only have to take part within the church but they must do their own duty outside of the church. This means getting involved within church events such as fundraising or helping out with the offerings within the sermons. The council felt there was many reasons for changing the role of the laity. One important reason was to enable the Church to adapt with current changes of the modern world. A quote from Pope John XXIII as on his deathbed (24 May 1963) (cited in Bishop Butler, 1967) was â€Å"Those who have lived as long as I have were enabled to compare different cultures and traditions, and know that the moment has come to discern the signs of the times, to seize the opportunity and to look far ahead. He recognised that the Church was at an important stage and that in order to seize opportunities and bring others into the faith, there needed to be a role for the laity. Bishop Butler (1967) supported this in stating; â€Å"Catholics were not meant to be museum keepers, but rather gardeners whose responsibility it was to prepare a beautiful harvest for a glorious future†. In other words, the laity are there to serve the Lord in as many ways possible, it would be an opportunity wasted if God’s children (the laity) were not sent out to spread the message. Lay Christians are dedicated to Christ and anointed by the Holy Spirit as aforementioned. They are called to be heralds of faith and through them the Church can become the salt of the earth. This is why the council felt it was important to change the role of the laity as they realised the Holy Spirit acted through them. There have been many developments within the church since the Vatican II. This includes the involvement of other helpers within the church. The Lay people due to the changes were able to do a lot more within the church services. These include readings and Eucharistic ministers. They also have female alter servers, which before the Vatican II would never have been allowed. Some felt that the Vatican II did little for the Church today; â€Å"Although the Second Vatican Council had enormous impact, it cannot be isolated from prior and parallel liturgical, theological, biblical, and social developments† (Mcbrien, 1997), however I disagree. Without the Vatican II’s introduction of the Constitution on the Church, the role of the Laity would not have been transformed to the state that we know today. Because of the Vatican II, the church today has many different roles for people. These include Church Church cleaners, flower arrangers, prayer groups, liturgy groups, pilgrimage groups (including taking the sick to Lourdes), bereavement care centres, parish teams, school chaplains and many more. In creating these jobs not only decreases the work load for the Clergy but it allows the community to get involved within the church and spreads the word of God. There are many developments that may happen in the future. Some have already been discussed but still have yet to be decided. One thing that may develop in the future is the decision on birth control. Although the Catholic Church has still banned contraception there may be good reason for the introduction of it for example the discussion of the prevention of HIV. Another development that could be changed is the marriage of priests. There will always be a place in the church for a celibate priesthood, but there should also be a place for a married priesthood in the church, stated by Daly (2011) (cited in McDonald, 2011). The statement provides challenges to the Catholic religion and that one-day the ban may be shifted. Another issue is that Homosexual marriage may occur in the future. Many religions including Christianity are still against this decision however, todays society is beginning to accept it and thus the Church may also come to the same agreement. A final development for the future would be female ministers. Although there has been much dispute about this topic, the church may alter its decision and adapt to the ever-changing society. Now that there is the Laity, the church must do its duty and continue to listen to the requests and suggestions made by the Laity. The church and the Laity can be said to be a family or a community and without the Laity or the Clergy present, the Catholic religion may not survive. Therefore the second Vatican’s decision on apostolate of Laity was very important as they help the survival of the religion and the message to be spread throughout the world.

Krashen’s Hypotheses of Second Language Acquisition Essay -- Foreign L

Krashen’s Hypotheses of Second Language Acquisition For decades, foreign language teachers wandered in a scientific abyss. Until 1983, there had been little real research dealing with the ways in which someone acquires a second language. Teachers mostly used the audiolingual classroom model that had been in place for the past twenty years (or, even worse, the literally ancient grammatical translation model that had been used by civilizations millennia old). Clearly, language teaching methodology was in a poor situation. In 1983, however, Krashen published the results of an unprecedented body of research and paved the way for a revolution in our field. His five-point hypothesis focused on the difference between the acquisition of and the learning of a second language. Krashen has his detractors, of course, not the least of whom are American school districts, which have been reluctant to implement his teachings. Most experts agree, however, that his ideas are the most meritorious of the theories in circulation now, an d schools that refuse to incorporate them are doing their students a disservice. The first of Krashen’s hypotheses is the learning-acquisition hypothesis, which differentiates the two titular terms. According to Krashen, â€Å"acquisition† refers to the implicit knowledge we have of a language, whereas â€Å"learning† refers to explicit knowledge about a language. Implicit knowledge refers to command of a language as if it were one’s native language; explicit knowledge is what we unfortunately gain in most foreign language classes. One good example of this in Spanish is the phrase â€Å"me llamo,† which literally means â€Å"I call myself† but is usually translated by Spanish teachers as â€Å"my name is.... ... on teachers to find objective methods of evaluating students, which can be extremely difficult to do if they heed Krashen’s advice. The price that students pay for steady grading is, unfortunately, genuine competence in their chosen language, and it is far too high. The pending change in second-language teaching is often called an â€Å"incomplete revolution† because the educational establishment refuses to implement the system despite its acknowledged merits, choosing instead to languish in the mediocrity we face today. WORKS CITED Krashen, Stephen. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press. 1982 Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context. Proficiency Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. 1986 Sole, Yolanda Russino. â€Å"The input hypothesis and the bilingual learner.† Bilingual Review 19:2. 99-100.

Barriers to Effective Communication Essay

Effective communication is a major element to success in any relationship, business, or organization. Communication barriers attempt to impede, and in some instances stop, the successful completion of the communication process. Law Enforcement agencies are susceptible to the consequences of ineffective communication and should work toward reducing and eliminating barriers blocking the flow of communication. Organizational flaws in the entangled hodgepodge of agencies within the American criminal justice system cause various communication barriers resulting in confusion and inefficiencies throughout the system. Law enforcement agencies began sharing more information after the attacks on 9/11 but barriers still exist. Understanding the communication process and using active listening skills is vital to overcoming barriers to effective communication. Process of Communication Wallace and Roberson (2009) define communication as, â€Å"a process involving several steps, among two or more persons, for the primary purpose of exchanging information† (p. 15). The communication process is dependent on the sender’s ability to create an understandable message for the recipient and the recipient’s ability to interpret the message. The process begins by transmitting an idea into a message made of carefully chosen symbols understandable to the receiver (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). To ensure success of the communication process, the sender should consider the recipient’s point of view while forming the message and selecting the means of transmission. The message can take the form of writing, speaking, or movement (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Receipt of the message is very important or the process of communication stops. Sending the message using the appropriate medium continues the communication process to the next step. Understanding the idea of the message requires interpretation by the recipient. The receiver interprets the message and provides feedback to the sender. Feedback indicates receipt of the message and whether the message was understood or requires more information. Formal and Informal Channels of Communication Information flows up and down through the police organizations according to the chain of command. The formal channels of communication within police organizations require strict adherence to order, written memorandums, and directives (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). The Momentum that information flows within the formal channels is slow creating a delay in sharing new information throughout the organization. Slow transmission reduces organizational efficiency, wastes valuable time, resources, and puts the reputation of the police agency at risk. Formal channels are restrictive and at times seem unnecessary but police agencies do receive benefits using the formal channels. Through formal channels, all officers receive the same directions in an understandable message that reduces confusion among officers and creates documentation for later reference (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Informal channels of communication exist in all law enforcement agencies and are used to pass information outside the formal channels of communication. Informal channels of communication give officers a break from the rigid protocol of formal channels. Opportunities for personal discussions that build camaraderie naturally improve morale and work performance. Police agencies know the benefits of informal channels of communication. When the right balance of formal and informal communications is achieved, the agency becomes a united police force. Overcoming Barriers to Effective Communication  The barriers that influence effective communication within the criminal justice system are emotional barriers, physical barriers, semantic barriers, and ineffective listening (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). The sender and receiver both can contribute emotional barriers reducing effective communication by allowing beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, and life experiences to enter the process. Criminal justice professionals can overcome emotional barriers by using peer support systems within the police department or support from outside sources (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Physical barriers are obstructions that interfere with movement of a message and are the hardest to overcome. The weather, distance, and failures in technology are a few examples of physical barriers a police officer may encounter (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Some barriers are out of the officer’s control and cannot be overcome quickly such as an ice storm that becomes a physical barrier when power and telephone lines go down ending communication. Semantic barriers consist of language differences and ambiguous word meanings and prevent a clear exchange of ideas resulting in failed communication. Hiring a diverse group of officers can reduce language barriers and choosing words carefully with the receiver in mind can help ease semantic barriers. Ineffective listening is another barrier present in the criminal justice system and occurs from disinterest, speaker bias, emotions, distractions, and words that invoke emotion (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Every officer needs active listening skills. An officer using active listening skills can diffuse dangerous situations when armed with a clear understanding of the circumstances. Active listening is different from hearing. Hearing is an automatic response to sound and listening is an act. While using active listening skills the officer is processing what the speaker is saying with interest, free of speaker bias, and emotions, before giving a response (Wallace & Roberson, 2009). Improving and eliminating barriers to effective communication is achieved through education and self-improvement courses offered as part of a criminal justice professional’s continuing education. Communication Failure 9/11  The repercussions of failed communication can be seen in the attacks of 9/11. Many factors contributed to known terrorists entering the United States undetected and successfully killing Americans. Ineffective communication resulting in communication failure is one variable that allowed the United States to be attacked by terrorist from another country. The structure of American law enforcement agencies is conducive to linkage blindness. Grant and Terry (2008) define linkage blindness as, â€Å"the inability to analyze and link critical information across or within agencies† (p. ). Communication failed because Federal law enforcement agencies did not share terrorist information with state and local law enforcement agencies. Competition and territorial greed between agencies contributed to the loss of communication within the law enforcement community (Grant & Terry, 2008). Best (2007) stated, â€Å"Almost all assessments of the attacks of September 11, 2001 have concluded U. S. Intelligence and law enforcement agencies had failed to share information that might have provided advance warning of the plot† (Summary, para. 1). Congress eventually acknowledged communication barriers exist within the system of law enforcement agencies and enacted legislation and regulation to facilitate the sharing of information. Conclusion Most communication barriers can be overcome by using common sense and active listening devoid of emotion and bias. Police agencies and individual criminal justice professionals are responsible for learning and using active listening skills. Understanding the communication process reveals strategies to overcoming barriers that block the flow of information. Formal and informal channels of communication can drive the movement of messages forward or stop movement completely. When terrorists attacked the United States September 11, 2001 Congress enacted legislation and regulations to tear down the communication barriers that existed between law enforcement agencies. Communication barriers will always exist within the structure of American law enforcement agencies but efforts will continue to eliminate barriers within reach and reduce those harder to reach.

The Use of Word Stems in English

In English grammar and morphology, a stem is the form of a word before any inflectional affixes are added. In English, most stems also qualify as words. The term base is commonly used by linguists to refer to any stem (or root) to which an affix is attached. Identifying a Stem A stem may consist of a single root, of two roots forming a compound stem, or of a root (or stem) and one or more derivational affixes forming a derived stem.(R. M. W. Dixon, The Languages of Australia. Cambridge University Press, 2010) Combining Stems The three main morphological processes are compounding, affixation, and conversion. Compounding involves adding two stems together, as in . . . window-sill--or blackbird, daydream, and so on. . . . For the most part, affixes attach to free stems, i.e., stems that can stand alone as a word. Examples are to be found, however, where an affix is added to a bound stem--compare perishable, where perish is free, with durable, where dur is bound, or unkind, where kind is free, with unbeknown, where beknown is bound. . . . Stem Conversion Conversion is where a stem is derived without any change in form from one belonging to a different class. For example, the verb bottle (I must bottle some plums) is derived by conversion from the noun bottle, while the noun catch (That was a fine catch) is converted from the verb.(Rodney D. Huddleston,  English Grammar: An Outline. Cambridge University Press, 1988) The Difference Between a Base and a Stem Base is the core of a word, that part of the word which is essential for looking up its meaning in the dictionary; stem is either the base by itself or the base plus another morpheme to which other morphemes can be added. [For example,] vary is both a base and a stem; when an affix is attached the base/stem is called a stem only. Other affixes can now be attached.(Bernard ODwyer,  Modern English Structures: Form, Function, and Position. Broadview, 2000) The Difference Between a Root and a Stem The terms root and stem are sometimes used interchangeably. However, there is a subtle difference between them: a root is a morpheme that expresses the basic meaning of a word and cannot be further divided into smaller morphemes. Yet a root does not necessarily constitute a fully understandable word in and of itself. Another morpheme may be required. For example, the form struct in English is a root because it cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts, yet neither can it be used in discourse without a prefix or a suffix being added to it (construct, structural, destruction, etc.)  A stem may consist of just a root. However, it may also be analyzed into a root plus  derivational morphemes  . . .. Like a root, a stem may or may not be a fully understandable word. For example, in English, the forms  reduce  and  deduce  are stems because they act like any other regular verb--they can take the  past-tense  suffix. However, they are not roots, because they can be a nalyzed into two parts,  -duce, plus a  derivational  prefix  re-  or  de-.So some roots are stems, and some stems are roots. ., but roots and stems are not the same thing. There are roots that are not stems (-duce), and there are stems that are not roots (reduce). In fact, this rather subtle distinction is not extremely important conceptually, and some theories do away with it entirely.(Thomas Payne,  Exploring Language Structure: A Students Guide. Cambridge University Press, 2006) ​Irregular Plurals Once there was a song about a purple-people-eater, but it would be ungrammatical to sing about a purple-babies-eater. Since the licit irregular plurals and the illicit regular plurals have similar meanings, it must be the grammar of irregularity that makes the difference.The theory of word structure explains the effect easily. Irregular plurals, because they are quirky, have to be stored in the mental dictionary as roots or stems; they cannot be generated by a rule. Because of this storage, they can be fed into the compounding rule that joins an existing stem to another existing stem to yield a new stem. But regular plurals are not stems stored in the mental dictionary; they are complex words that are assembled on the fly by inflectional rules whenever they are needed. They are put together too late in the root-to-stem-to-word assembly process to be available to the compounding rule, whose inputs can only come out of the dictionary.(Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. William Morrow, 1994)